This is the second part of my series on Russia-Ukraine. It is intended as a primer for those who may know little about the history of either nation. It is not intended a a complete history.
Russia-Ukraine – Part II
Revolution, Civil War, and the Fall of the Monarchy
The period following the First World War was one of immense turmoil and transformation for Russia. It was during this time that the country abolished its centuries-old monarchy, culminating in the execution of Tsar Nicholas II and his family. Simultaneously, Russia was embroiled in a brutal civil war that would determine its political future.
Adding to the chaos, Russia endured its third major invasion since Napoleon’s campaign in 1812—this time, at the hands of Germany during World War I. Russian casualties were staggering, with estimates ranging from two to 3.3 million, including civilian losses. Much of this devastation stemmed from military incompetence, as Russia’s leadership made catastrophic strategic blunders, allowing the German Army to decimate Russian forces on the Eastern Front.
At home, the Russian economy and military were in ruins, and the country’s leadership—under Tsar Nicholas II—was unstable at best. While the Tsar took direct control of the military, he left domestic governance in the hands of his wife, Alexandra, who fell under the influence of the mystic and political opportunist, Grigori Rasputin.[1]
The Rise of Lenin and the Bolsheviks
The collapse of the Russian war effort, coupled with economic ruin and internal discontent, left the Russian people vulnerable to radical change. Into this volatile environment stepped Vladimir Lenin, a revolutionary who had been exiled for spreading Communist propaganda and attempting to incite a revolt against the monarchy.[2]
Ironically, Lenin’s return was orchestrated by Germany, which saw an opportunity to destabilize Russia and force its withdrawal from the war. The Germans secretly transported Lenin back to Russia, hoping he would ignite revolution and allow Germany to focus its forces on the Western Front.
Lenin, alongside Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin, led the Bolsheviks to power in 1917. Stalin, though relatively minor at the time, would later consolidate power after Lenin’s death in 1924—despite Lenin’s written warning (in his Testament) that Stalin should be removed due to his increasing authoritarianism.
One of Lenin’s first major acts as leader was to end Russia’s involvement in World War I. This was formalized in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918), a humiliating peace agreement that ceded vast Russian territories to Germany. These lost lands would later fuel Adolf Hitler’s territorial ambitions decades later.
Ukraine’s Short-Lived Independence (1918-1919)
After the war’s conclusion with the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Ukraine declared its independence, Germany’s Weimar Republic—having abandoned the gains from Brest-Litovsk—renouncing its claims over Ukrainian territory.
Ukraine’s independence, however, was short-lived. In 1919, Soviet forces easily crushed the fledgling state, incorporating it into what would become the Soviet Union. The Red Army, under Bolshevik control, quickly solidified its dominance, ensuring that Ukraine remained under Russian rule.
Ukraine’s Long Struggle for Autonomy
The history of Russia and Ukraine is deeply intertwined, dating back to Kievan Rus (9th century), the early foundation of the Russian state. Since then, Russia has continuously claimed Ukraine as part of its historical and territorial domain.
Importantly, “Russia” refers not just to the modern nation-state but also to the ethnic Russian people, who have historically dominated the region. Eastern Europe and Northern Eurasia has long been contentious of Russian domination, forced learning of the Russian language, and forced inclusion into the Soviet state. Only after the fall of the Soviet Union (1991) did other Slavic ethnic groups, including Ukrainians, finally achieve independent nationhood—something that has long caused friction with Russian leadership.
Stalin’s Consolidation of Power & the Great Purge
Following Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin seized control of both the Communist Party and the Soviet Union. His main rival, Leon Trotsky, fled into exile, leaving Stalin as the unchallenged leader.[3]
By 1928, Stalin had begun a ruthless process of consolidating power, eliminating political rivals, and purging the military. He also imposed strict Communist policies, most notably through forced collectivization—a campaign to seize privately owned land and merge farms into state-run collectives.
The Tragedy of Collectivization & the Persecution of the Kulaks
The kulaks, wealthier peasants who owned livestock and employed laborers, were branded as enemies of the state, Stalin blaming them for hoarding grain and preventing food from reaching Soviet cities.[4] In response:
- Land was seized, and private farming was abolished.
- Those who resisted were executed or sent to labor camps (Gulags).
- Many peasants slaughtered their own livestock in defiance, leading to agricultural collapse.
- Mass starvation followed, particularly in Ukraine.
Most historians agree that Stalin’s collectivization policies were a failure, leading directly to one of the worst famines in modern history—a famine that would be intentionally worsened in Ukraine.
Ukraine and the Holodomor (1932-1933)
Ukraine was hit hardest by Stalin’s collectivization policies. Known for its fertile black soil and agricultural production, Ukraine had been a center of resistance against Soviet policies, and as a result, suffered at the hands and direction of Stalin and his policies.
A Man-Made Famine
The famine, known in Ukraine as Holodomor (“death by hunger”), was not simply the result of failed policies—it was a deliberate act of oppression by Stalin.
- Soviet officials seized Ukrainian grain and withheld food aid.
- Peasants were forbidden from leaving Ukraine in search of food.
- Reports of cannibalism, mass hangings, and societal breakdown were widespread.
- At least 3 million Ukrainians perished (some estimates exceed 5 million).
Beyond the famine itself, political persecution targeted Ukrainians advocating for independence. Many Ukrainian intellectuals, nationalists, and political leaders were either executed or sent to the Gulags.[5]
Western Suppression of the Famine
The Soviet Union covered up the true extent of the famine through state-controlled propaganda. Even some Western journalists, such as Walter Duranty of The New York Times, dismissed reports of mass starvation as “exaggerated,” but subsequent research showed such devastation was understated.
For decades, the Holodomor remained a suppressed chapter in history. Only in the 1980s did the true scale of the famine become widely acknowledged. Finally, in 2019, Ukraine’s Holodomor was officially recognized as genocide.
Next week, Part III: The creation of NATO, echoes of the Cold War, and the Fall of the Soviet Union.
[1] The stories surrounding Rasputin border on fantastical, but much has been documented, especially his ability to help with the Tsar’s hemophiliac son.
[2] An excellent book covering this topic is entitled: To The Finland Station
[3] Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico City in 1940. Most scholars believe the more moderate Trotsky would have succeeded Lenin if the latter died in 1922.
[4] Stalin’s policies, his forced 5 Year Plans, were responsible for much of this.
[5] They were not the only ones as Stalin opened a chain of gulags for political prisoners, or anyone even thought to oppose either him, or the government’s policies. This is well documented in the book The Gulag Archipelago by Alexander Solzhenitsyn.
